Chinese history has produced many cultural exports, particularly to East and Southeast Asia. Here are five of the most significant:
1. Hanzi (Chinese characters)
Calligraphy dates back 3,000 years in China, and was exported to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Photo: Shutterstock
The logographic system of Chinese languages is widely accepted by world scholars as one of human history’s four independent inventions of writing.
The earliest examples discovered date back to around 1250BC, when oracle bone script was made by carving Chinese characters onto ox bones and turtle shells. These inscriptions mentioned the Shang dynasty’s emperors and mostly documented official divinations carried out on behalf of royal families.
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Imperial China introduced the hanzi writing system to neighbouring countries, where it was adapted to write local languages. The adopted Chinese characters are called kanji in Japanese, hanja in Korean and chữ hán in Vietnamese – all terms which translate to “Han characters”.
Today, children in Japan, South Korea and North Korea are expected to learn between 1,000 and 2,000 basic Han characters. Both Japanese and Korean given names still use kanji and hanja respectively.
Chữ hán is no longer a compulsory school subject in Vietnam; and although Vietnamese surnames are practically all Sino-Vietnamese words, they are no longer written as such.
Hanzi now exists in both traditional and simplified characters. The former is used in Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau, while the latter has been in use in mainland China, Singapore and Malaysia since its invention in Communist China.
The philosophy of Confucius gained prominence in China during the Han dynasty (206BC to AD220) and is known around the world. Photo: Getty Images
2. Confucianism
With language comes thought; with thought comes philosophy. Developed by ancient Chinese thinker Confucius (551BC to 479BC), also known as Kongzi, Confucianism has strong influences on the Sinosphere and is well-known around the world.
Confucianism is also called the Ru school of thought or religious doctrine. Promoting the importance of familial and social harmony over the self, it considers human relationships as the expression of people’s moral nature, while emphasising the self-cultivation of virtues such as ren, yi, li and zhi – co-humanity, righteousness, rite and wisdom. It holds in contempt those who fail to uphold these values.
The philosophy of Confucius has long been criticised by scholars and writers as feudalist, classist and immensely sexist, and lacking in empathy and equality. Some have said Confucianism is to blame for the failures of contemporary Chinese civilisation because it fosters blind obedience and worship of authority and discourages critical thinking.
Tofu is made from processing soy milk, and is a major source of protein for vegetarians. Photo: Shutterstock
3. Tofu (bean curd)
The Chinese technique for making tofu was brought to Japan during the Nara period from AD710 to AD794 and subsequently introduced to other parts of East and Southeast Asia. The popularisation of tofu is thought to have coincided with the spread of Buddhism, particularly the East Asian strain, as it is a key source of protein in a vegetarian diet.
The word “tofu” was brought to the West by the Japanese, who borrowed the term from the Chinese doufu, meaning “bean ferment”.
The earliest documentation of the English word “tofu” is in the early 18th century; the word “towfu” also appears in a 1770 letter from English merchant James Flint to Benjamin Franklin, founding father of the United States of America.
Noodles were first mentioned in China in a book 2,000 years ago. Photo: Shutterstock
4. Mein (noodles)
From Japanese ramen to Vietnamese phở and the long pasta of Italy, noodles, as we know them today, are an extremely versatile food type in many different cultures.
Noodles were first mentioned in a book from the Eastern Han period (220BC to 25BC), when written records state that wheat dough noodles had become a prominent food item in China.
Japan adapted udon from a Chinese recipe as early as the ninth century, while Korea’s buckwheat naengmyeon have existed since the beginning of the Joseon dynasty’s rule of the Korean peninsula, which began in the late 14th century.
But the world’s oldest known noodles go back much further. In 2005, some 4,000-year-old thin yellow strands of noodle were found in an upturned pot in Lajia, a Bronze Age archaeological site between the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai in northwest China. These Lajia noodles are believed to have been made from either barley or wheat.
Two tea farmers pluck Longjing tea leaves in the village of Meijiawu in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province. Photo: Xinhua
5. Tea
Tea has been drunk in China since about 2700BC, at least according to Chinese legend. The earliest evidence, discovered in 2016, showed that Han dynasty emperors drank camellia tea as early as the second century BC.
The oldest documentation of tea drinking found is from the third century BC, when late Eastern Han dynasty doctor Hua Tuo recorded it in a medical text.
In around AD760, Tang dynasty tea master Lu Yu wrote The Classic of Tea, known as the world’s first text on the brewed drink. The text introduces the mythological origins of Chinese tea and contains a horticultural description of tea plants, and aspects of tea planting, processing and drinking.
The Tang dynasty exerted a powerful influence over neighbouring East Asian nations, and it was also around this time that the practice of tea drinking was exported and took root in Japan and Korea.
In ancient China tea was used for medicinal purposes, was a drink served in the imperial court and, eventually, a daily essential for the general population. In due course cha dao (the Chinese tea ceremony) became an art form.
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